• Use a piece of card to draw the "map" shown in the diagram. It doesn't have to be precisely drawn - a rough job will be fine. Alternatively you could photocopy the diagram and stick it on a piece of card. You now have nine "features" with a route that you are going to follow.


• On a flat area of ground mark out the nine features in an oblong (use stones, drinks cans - anything that won't blow away). There needs to be about 3 metres between each marker.


• The aim of the exercise is to follow the route which you have drawn on your map. The faster you run, the harder it will be to follow the route.


• Do the first exercise WITHOUT setting the map. Hold the map against your chest fixed in front of you and don't turn it as you travel. Don't travel sideways or backwards (you wouldn't do this on the hill!). You will probably find it quite difficult to follow the route, especially if you run.


• Now follow the route by keeping the map set as you travel. When you change direction you must turn the map so that it stays set. You should find it fairly straightforward to follow the route, even on the run.


• Draw a different route on your map and follow it as fast as you can.


• Set this exercise up for your friends and see how they get on.

 

Ticking off Features

'Ticking off features' overlaps with 'Route Choice'. It is about being observant, having your map handy and checking your current position continuously as your walk progresses. When the weather is good and the skies are clear it is usually easy to check your position as you walk. When the weather is poor and visibility is limited, it may be necessary to follow a compass bearing and estimate how far you have travelled using timing or pacing.

The key skill is to keep track of where you are at all times. How do you do this? Well, it is vital to keep a constant eye on the terrain and relate this to the map as your walk progresses. You should be checking the immediate and distant terrain noting key features such as high points, crags, valleys, streams and ridges. It also helps to looking backwards to see where you’ve come from. All this information helps you develop a feel for the terrain around you and where you are located within it. As you pass by each feature you can ‘tick it off '. This helps to re-affirm your position continuously. So, if someone were to say, “Show me where you are on the map”, then you should be able to point to your location with a high degree of confidence. It goes without saying that you must have your map to hand and folded showing your route.

In Diagram 1 the two walkers approach and cross a bridge (tick). They then follow the edge of a sheep enclosure (tick) before striking out for the boulders (tick). From here they follow the top of the escarpment (handrail) and ascend the ridge (handrail) to reach the trig point at the summit (tick).

The key to navigating accurately is to be alert to changes in the terrain and to match these with their representations on the map. If you spot something such as a significant change in steepness and you see this reflected on the map (a narrowing of the distance between contour lines) this helps confirm your position. If you spot a feature that fails to appear on the map, then you need to be more cautious and look for other bits of information to help you decide where you are. It helps to think in terms of three different kinds of features, viz.,

Diagram 2 shows how it is possible to gather different kinds of information to help confirm your present location.

In summary, the main thing is to observe and gather information. Look at the terrain and note how it changes as you progress. Features may appear as you gain height whilst others will disappear. The shape of the land will change as you move closer and some features may appear clearer or change in colour and texture. What you have to do is see all this on your map. If you can match ‘like for like’ and transfer the three-dimensional view to a two-dimensional picture then you can be confident about where you are on the map.

 

 

Contour Interpretation

The most useful feature on the map for navigating in the mountains is the contour line. Contour features can nearly always be identified on the ground even when covered in snow. Streams and tracks are useful too but they tend to be less reliable.

A contour line is a line on the map joining points of equal height. The Vertical Interval is the height between each contour – this will be shown on the map. The Ordnance Survey 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 maps have a 10 metre vertical interval while the Harvey Superwalker 1:25,000 scale maps have a 15 metre vertical interval. Some popular maps of the French Alps have a 10 metre vertical interval which changes to 20 metres when you cross over the border into Switzerland!

So what is a contour feature? It’s pretty simple really - there is a finite number of types of contour feature:-

The illustration map shows examples of all these features (the letters in brackets shown above refer to the features indicated on the map). Contour interpretation is about relating the contour features on the map to the real features on the ground (and vice versa). This can be done in three main ways:-

Like all skills, the more you practice the better you become. On days with good visibility there may be a tendency to walk along looking at the view or chatting, rather than studying the map in detail. A habit worth acquiring is to always spend part of each hill day developing your contour interpretation skills - even if it’s not really necessary at the time. You could set a limit on the time you will spend on this - maybe half an hour or until you reach a particular landmark.

Build up a repertoire of images by matching up features on the ground with the contours on the map. For example, the illustration map shows two examples of a ridge (R). The westerly ridge is fairly narrow but is relatively easy angled (although there may be a short steep section at the apex of the thick contour) whereas the easterly ridge is broader and steeper. By identifying these features on the ground you will be able to store their images away for use in other situations where the terrain is similar.

Another example of variations between the same type of feature can be found by examining slopes. How close together are the contours on a steep or medium slope? How do you define a steep or medium slope? 45 degrees is steep - generally too steep for walking whereas 27 degrees is a reasonable angle - we could call this a medium slope.

How do we know if the contours on the map are going uphill or downhill? Here’s a few ways:-

By developing your mental images of different features and how they are represented on the map by contours you will increase you ability to work out where you are and to anticipate the ground which lies further ahead in your journey. Contour interpretation is fun - in both good and poor visibility.

 

 

 

Taking and Following A Compass Bearing

The previous articles dealt with Setting the Map and Contour Interpretation. Using these two skills often means that you don’t need to use your compass very much but there will be times when good compass skills are essential. The skills described in this article should not be used in isolation from those shown in the previous two articles and the forthcoming ones. It is not a good idea to simply set a bearing on your compass and head off across mountain country without incorporating all the skills which the other articles deal with (e.g. setting the map, contour interpretation, estimating distance, route choice). Build up your compass skills progressively on paths and other prominent linear features which provide feedback about the accuracy of the course you are following.

A mountaineer’s compass 

The important features of a compass for mountain navigation are shown in Photo 1:-

A compass like this performs two functions – it is both a magnetic compass and a protractor for taking bearings. You need to attach your compass so that you can leave go of it without losing it and also use it to take bearings from the map and hold it up when following a bearing. A simple and effective method which can be used with any combination of clothing or equipment is a long cord which goes over one shoulder (Photo 2). When using the compass for taking or following bearings, you can slip your arm through the loop (Photos 3 & 4).

There are two main factors required for effective compass work:-

Taking the correct bearing from the map 

Any inaccuracy in taking the bearing will be magnified when you follow it on the ground so it is important to be as precise as possible. It’s good to have a firm surface to lay the map on so you can hold the compass firmly in place – sitting down or using one knee works well (Photo 3). Before placing the compass on the map, estimate what the bearing will be (from your location to the feature you want to go to). No need to do this in degrees, the cardinal points will do i.e. North; South; East; West or NW; SE etc. This will alert you to the embarrassing and potentially serious error of lining up the compass in the wrong direction or along the wrong grid lines – getting into this habit will mean that your bearings are always double-checked. Place the compass on the map with the Direction of Travel arrow pointing in the direction you want to go and then line up the edge of the baseplate with your location and the feature you want to go to (the magnetic needle has nothing to do with taking a bearing from the map and you don’t necessarily need to be anywhere near the area covered by the map when you take a bearing). You can also use the lines which run parallel with the edge of the baseplate – it is often easier to see the detail on the map more clearly by using these lines (Photo 5). Once you have lined up the two points, press the baseplate firmly down on to the map to keep it in place (this is why it is useful to use your knee). Rotate the compass housing so that the north arrow points to north on the map (ignore the magnetic needle). Make sure the lines within the compass housing are parallel to the eastings (the eastings are the Grid Lines which point north – they are called the eastings because they are numbered from west to east). Check that you have accurately lined up:-

You now have an accurate Grid Bearing. Take the compass off the map and note what the bearing is. You can read it at the cursor which is in line with the Direction of Travel arrow. Be careful not to dislodge the bearing by allowing the compass housing to rotate unintentionally.

 

 

 

Before following the bearing on the ground you will need to adjust it for the Magnetic Variation. This variation changes over the years. The area around Ben Nevis presently has a variation of just over 3 degrees while the Cairngorms are just under 4 degrees. It is not practical to set your compass bearing to more than one degree of accuracy so for much of Scotland in 2004 you can use 3 degrees (confirm that you are using the correct variation by checking the details on the map). To convert a Grid Bearing to a Magnetic Bearing you need to add the 3 degrees. Most compasses which are used for mountain navigation have an increment of two degrees on the compass housing – so add one and a half increments. Finally check that the bearing you have is similar to the rough estimate which you took at the beginning – this is your double check.

Following the bearing on the ground 

Hold your compass in front of you with the Direction of Travel arrow pointing in whichever direction you happen to be facing. Keep holding the compass in front of you and walk your body around until the north end of the magnetic needle coincides with the north arrow in the compass housing (the north end of the magnetic needle on your compass will probably be coloured red and some compass needles also have “N” on the needle). It is your body that turns – not the compass baseplate. The Direction of Travel arrow now “does what it says on the tin” – tells you which way to go.

How to follow the bearing:-

These methods show how to take and follow a compass bearing accurately. There are times when absolute precision is not necessary because you are following a linear feature on the ground such as a ridge or a stream. 
It is still good practice to take a rough bearing and to use the compass to keep a general check on your direction. This will confirm that the feature you are following is still the correct one and could prevent a major navigational error.

Of course, following the bearing isn’t the end of the story – you also need to know how far you have travelled.This is discussed in Estimating Distance Travelled.

 

 

Estimating Distance Travelled

It’s obviously very important to know how far you have travelled from your last known point - this is done by Estimating Distance.

There are two tried and tested ways of estimating how far you have travelled. These are TIMING and PACING. Timing is probably the easiest to carry out but it is often the least accurate. Pacing is usually the most accurate but it can be laborious, especially over long distances. When the weather and conditions are difficult it is often wise to use both methods concurrently.

Before using either of these methods you will need to measure the distance on the map between your present location and the target you are walking to. Some people use the millimetres scale which runs alongside the compass baseplate (Figure 1) while others prefer to use one of the romers (Figure 2). Millimetres can sometimes be hard to distinguish especially in rain or snow. On a 1:50,000 scale map, one millimetre represents 50 metres on the ground (an easy mistake is to count one millimetre as 100 metres). On a 1:25,000 scale map, one millimetre represents 25 metres on the ground. Using the compass romer may be clearer although some compasses don’t have romers. Some compasses have removable scales for different maps.

Timing

This is based on knowing the speed at which you are walking and keeping a note of when you left your last known point. Walking speed varies and is dependent on a range of factors including fitness, weight of rucksack, length of journey, wind, conditions underfoot, slope angle (and closeness to pub closing time). A formula for estimating the time required for a journey was published in 1892 by the renowned Scottish mountaineer, W.W. Naismith. There are numerous variations on this formula and enthusiasts will discuss at length the merits of different models. However, useful estimates can be made without going into great detail and most people manage with just one or two versions of Naismith’s original calculations. The simplest formula combines the horizontal distance with the height gained. Allow 5 kilometres per hour on the flat plus 10 minutes for every 100 metres height gain. Most reasonably fit people can maintain this speed throughout a day in the hills (provided there aren’t any particular difficulties) but remember that it doesn’t allow for rests or stops.

“Naismith’s” is a valuable navigation aid and also a useful way of working out how long your entire route will take. To use this formula for short navigation legs, break it down to 1.2 minutes per 100 metres horizontal distance and 1 minute for every 10 metres of ascent. You can only travel at the speed of the slowest person and so you may need to use a slower formula such as 4 kph which is calculated at 1.5 minutes per 100 metres. When going gently downhill, it is best to ignore the height loss and just use the horizontal component of the formula. When descending steep ground which will slow your rate of travel a rough estimate can be used – allow 1 minute for every 30 metres of descent, although this is only an approximation.

Using a Timing Chart (Figure 3) for the horizontal component makes the calculations easy although many people prefer to work it out mentally. Remember to add 1 minute for every 10 metres of ascent.

Working out timing calculations mentally becomes straightforward with practice:-

Figure 4 provides an example:-
From A to B

Distance 850 metres
850 metres = 8 x 12 = 96 = 9.6 minutes
Round off to the nearest half minute = 9½ minutes
Add ½ minute for the extra 50 metres = 10 minutes 

Height gain 130 metres(13 contours, including the one which encloses the 1083 spot height)1 minute for every 10 metres (or for every contour if using this map) = 13 minutes 

Total time from A to B = 10 + 13 = 23 minutes 

None of this is of any use if you don’t have a watch. It is useful to have a stopwatch facility so you don’t have to remember the time at the start of each leg. Most high street jewellers sell inexpensive digital watches which have a stopwatch facility (about £13).

Pacing
Pacing is often more accurate than timing but it does require concentration. An average stride takes about 60 double paces per hundred metres (a double pace is also known as a Roman Pace – hence the word “mile” which originated from a thousand Roman paces). You can find out your own individual pacing figure by measuring out 100 metres and then seeing how many double paces you take to cover the distance or you can do it on the hill between known points on relatively flat terrain. Going up or down hill or walking on rough ground or in deep snow can alter the number of paces you take. You can estimate how many extra paces you need to take to complete 100 metres at the end of every 60 double paces. It is best to measure the distance in hundreds of metres rather than by working out the total number of paces needed for a particular navigational leg i.e. if the target is 450 metres away and your personal pacing figure is 62, then count 62 paces for four times (which gives you 400 metres) and then add the final 31 paces. It is useful to have a way of remembering how many hundreds of metres you have paced - it’s easy to forget especially if someone asks you a question halfway through the leg. Silva make a counter which fits on the side of your compass or you can use cord grips as counters on the compass lanyard.

 

Don’t always expect your timing and pacing calculations to take you right to the spot you are heading for - look at the ground around you and compare it with the contours on the map. Can you find anything that doesn’t fit in? If so, be tenacious about finding out why it doesn’t fit. Look for other features which do make sense.

 

 

Route Choice

Route Choice for navigation means “selection of features on the map which can be identified on the ground to create navigational legs along a route that avoids major hazards and is practical to follow”. This lengthy definition encompasses three main factors which should be taken into consideration when choosing the route to be navigated:-

Imagine someone is giving you directions to their house in a town which you have never been to. What landmarks will they use? They will probably try to describe the route by referring to landmarks which you will easily be able to find e.g. a bank, hotel, shop, railway station, roundabout, traffic lights etc. Transfer this concept to choosing a route in the mountains – instead of someone telling you what the landmarks are, you look for them on the map and choose features which you will be able to find.

The illustration shows two route choices for going from Carn Ban Mor to Loch nan Cnapan. The red arrow shows the direct route which is 2½ kilometres long and would be difficult to navigate in poor visibility. Following a compass bearing for this distance with no easily identifiable features along the way may result in drifting off the bearing and it will be difficult to keep track of the distance travelled. The other route shown by the blue arrows breaks the journey into four legs. Each leg ends with a prominent contour feature (except the loch which is the final destination). The first leg ends at a prominent change in slope angle – the bottom of the south-east slope of Carn Ban Mor. The second leg travels across flat terrain before gaining 10 metres height to reach the 950 metre ring contour. The result of travelling too far on this leg will be clear – the descending terrain is a catching feature which will highlight the error and enable the navigator to return to the ring contour. The track goes across the top of the ring contour and this is a supplementary feature which may be of use, although in winter it may be covered in snow. The third leg ends at a prominent change in the steepness of the streambed where the track makes a 90 degree bend. The track may not be visible but to the south of the bend the contours show a steep-sided streambed whereas to the north the streambed is comparatively flat. This is a location which can be found without too much difficulty. From here a relatively short final leg crosses a flat-topped spur before dropping down to Loch nan Cnapan. This route incorporates some height gain and loss but it is practical to follow and makes use of prominent features which can be identified in poor visibility.

Being able to select an appropriate route and then following it using the skills which have been discussed ontheother pagescan be very satisfying, great fun, and most importantly will help you to have successful days out on the hill.

 

 

 

Relocation Strategies

Finding your way across the mountains is usually relatively straightforwardwhen the weather is good, but as soon as the cloud descends and the weather turns foul, then matters can take on a different complexion altogether. At these times a moment’s inattention can leave you feeling you are lost. Actually, it’s wrong to use the word 'lost' because it has a ‘final’ ring about it and suggests you may never be found again! Better to think of yourself as temporarily misplaced and that you will, eventually, find your way back home.

So, what do you do if you’re unsure of where you are? Well, there are a number of different tactics you can use and it’s a good idea to know several of them. The overriding principle is to tackle the problem in a structured, methodical manner and certainly try to stay calm. Here’s what to do. Think of three steps.

Step 1

Don’t panic! It’s easy to get alarmed because it can be quite unnerving to suddenly find that you don’t know where you are. If the weather is poor and daylight hours are limited, this compounds the problem. Stay calm and don’t do anything rash. Most important, don’t simply start walking in different directions changing bearings every minute or two in the hope that things will be sorted. This strategy rarely works. You need to tackle the problem in a more controlled manner. So, stop and consider your situation and begin to gather some information. In other words, do a bit of research.

Step 2
Step 3

Having gathered as much information as possible then you need to plan what to do and take action. That plan has to be controlled and involve actions that can be retraced should they not work out. This is what you can do.

A spiral search involves an expanding series of right angle turns walking legs which are multiples of the limit of visibility This allows an exhaustive search but can be very time consuming and inefficient. However, if carried out correctly it is guaranteed to provide you with important information. It is especially useful, if, for example, you are close to a particular feature such as a trig point of summit cairn.